@article{ref1, title="Infrared imagery of crown-fire dynamics during FROSTFIRE", journal="Journal of applied meteorology", year="2004", author="Mahalingam, Shankar and Coen, Janice and Daily, John", volume="43", number="9", pages="1241-1259", abstract="A thorough understanding of crown-fire dynamics requires a clear picture of the three-dimensional winds in and near the fire, including the flaming combustion zone and the convective updrafts produced by the fire. These observations and analyses present a unique high-spatial-resolution and high-temporal-resolution perspective of the motions within crown fires propagating up a forested 20 deg slope under light winds of 3 m s-1 during the FROSTFIRE experiment in interior Alaska. The purpose of this work is to calculate combustion-zone winds and examine mechanisms for the rapid propagation of crown fires. An infrared imager was used to detect high-temperature regions produced by incandescent soot particles in and near the fire and to produce a sequence of high-frequency (60 Hz), high-resolution (0.375 m x 0.8 m) two-dimensional images of temperature. An image-flow-analysis technique was applied to these data to derive wind fields in the image plane. Maximum updrafts of 32-60 m s-1 accompany maximum downdrafts of 18-30 m s-1. Horizontal wind speeds of 12-28 m s-1 show strong inflow into the base of the convective updrafts and imply recirculation of air and incomplete combustion products from the fire. Motions were more complex than a single large convective plume or many buoyant tree-scale plumes rising separately. Instead, repeated examples of narrow flaming fingers, representing a scale larger than individual trees, initially burst upslope along the ground for tens of meters at speeds up to 28-48 m s-1 before turning upward. These bursts exceeded ambient environmental winds, those considered to be driving the fire, by a factor of 10 and were low enough to propagate the crown fire actively by both igniting and preheating/ drying canopy fuel ahead of the fire. Average spread rates were 0.75-1.11 m s-1, with a peak 10-s spread rate of 1.26 m s-1. This powerful, dynamic mechanism of fire spread could explain firefighter reports of being overtaken by 'fireballs.'", language="", issn="0894-8763", doi="10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<1241:IIOCDD>2.0.CO;2", url="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<1241:IIOCDD>2.0.CO;2" }