@article{ref1,
title="Penalty Enhancement for Hate Crimes: An Economic Analysis",
journal="American law and economics review",
year="2004",
author="Dharmapala, D. and Garoupa, N",
volume="6",
number="1",
pages="185-207",
abstract="This article develops an economic analysis of penalty enhancements for bias-motivated (or &quot;hate&quot;) crimes. Our model allows potential offenders' benefits from a crime to depend on the victim's group identity, and assumes that potential victims have the opportunity to undertake socially costly victimization avoidance activities. We derive the result that a pattern of crimes disproportionately targeting an identifiable group leads to greater social harm (even when the harm to an individual victim from a bias-motivated crime is identical to that from an equivalent non-hate crime). In addition, we consider a number of other issues related to hate crime laws.<p />",
language="",
issn="1465-7252",
doi="10.1093/aler/ahh001",
url="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aler/ahh001"
}