@article{ref1,
title="Smoking predicts posttraumatic stress symptoms among rescue workers: a prospective study of ambulance personnel involved in the Enschede Fireworks Disaster",
journal="Drug and alcohol dependence",
year="2008",
author="van der Velden, Peter G. and Kleber, Rolf J. and Koenen, Karestan C.",
volume="94",
number="1-3",
pages="267-271",
abstract="BACKGROUND: Examining whether smoking is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among rescue workers affected by a disaster. METHODS: Ambulance personnel (N=66) participated in surveys 2-3 weeks (T1) and 18 months after a fireworks disaster (T2). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted with cigarette consumption at T1 as a predictor of PTSD symptoms at T2. Demographic characteristics, disaster experiences, peritraumatic dissociation, intrusions and avoidance, psychological distress and alcohol consumption assessed at T1 were included as covariates. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that smoking at T1 independently predicted intrusions, avoidance, hostility, and depression symptoms at T2. Results were not affected by controlling for post-disaster critical incidents at work. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first prospective study among rescue workers demonstrating that smoking soon after a disaster predicts PTSD symptoms in the intermediate term. Findings substantiate results of previous studies indicating that smoking is a relevant risk factor. Future research on how changes in cigarettes consumption post-trauma affect risk of PTSD is required.<p /><p>Language: en</p>",
language="en",
issn="0376-8716",
doi="10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.11.001",
url="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.11.001"
}