@article{ref1,
title="Appealing to fear: a meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories",
journal="Psychological bulletin",
year="2015",
author="Tannenbaum, Melanie B. and Hepler, Justin and Zimmerman, Rick S. and Saul, Lindsey and Jacobs, Samantha and Wilson, Kristina and Albarracín, Dolores",
volume="141",
number="6",
pages="1178-1204",
abstract="Fear appeals are a polarizing issue, with proponents confident in their efficacy and opponents confident that they backfire. We present the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis investigating fear appeals' effectiveness for influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. We tested predictions from a large number of theories, the majority of which have never been tested meta-analytically until now. Studies were included if they contained a treatment group exposed to a fear appeal, a valid comparison group, a manipulation of depicted fear, a measure of attitudes, intentions, or behaviors concerning the targeted risk or recommended solution, and adequate statistics to calculate effect sizes. The meta-analysis included 127 articles (9% unpublished) yielding 248 independent samples (NTotal = 27,372) collected from diverse populations. <br><br>RESULTS showed a positive effect of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with the average effect on a composite index being random-effects d = 0.29. Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients. Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors; (b) there are very few circumstances under which they are not effective; and (c) there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record<p /> <p>Language: en</p>",
language="en",
issn="0033-2909",
doi="10.1037/a0039729",
url="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039729"
}