Citation

Bockhop F, Cunitz K, Zeldovich M, Buchheim A, Beissbarth T, Hagmayer Y, von Steinbuechel N. J. Clin. Med. 2023; 12(12).

Copyright

(Copyright © 2023, MDPI: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute)

DOI

10.3390/jcm12123873

PMID

37373567

PMCID

PMC10299140

Abstract

Psychopathological symptoms are common sequelae after traumatic brain injury (TBI), leading to increased personal and societal burden. Previous studies on factors influencing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) after TBI have produced inconclusive results, partly due to methodological limitations. The current study investigated the influence of commonly proposed factors on the clinical impairment, occurrence, frequency, and intensity of symptoms of PTSD, GAD, and MDD after TBI. The study sample comprised 2069 individuals (65% males). Associations between psychopathological outcomes and sociodemographic, premorbid, and injury-related factors were analyzed using logistic regression, standard, and zero-inflated negative binomial models. Overall, individuals experienced moderate levels of PTSD, GAD, and MDD. Outcomes correlated with early psychiatric assessments across domains. The clinical impairment, occurrence, frequency, and intensity of all outcomes were associated with the educational level, premorbid psychiatric history, injury cause, and functional recovery. Distinct associations were found for injury severity, LOC, and clinical care pathways with PTSD; age and LOC:sex with GAD; and living situation with MDD, respectively. The use of suitable statistical models supported the identification of factors associated with the multifactorial etiology of psychopathology after TBI. Future research may apply these models to reduce personal and societal burden.

Language: en

Keywords

traumatic brain injury; post-traumatic stress disorder; generalized anxiety disorder; major depressive disorder; negative and zero-inflated negative binomial model