Citation

Martins LM, Ribeiro NF, Soares F, Santos CP. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22(11): e4028.

Copyright

(Copyright © 2022, MDPI: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute)

DOI

10.3390/s22114028

PMID

35684649

Abstract

The recognition of Activities of Daily Living (ADL) has been a widely debated topic, with applications in a vast range of fields. ADL recognition can be accomplished by processing data from wearable sensors, specially located at the lower trunk, which appears to be a suitable option in uncontrolled environments. Several authors have addressed ADL recognition using Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based algorithms, obtaining encouraging results. However, the number of ADL recognized by these algorithms is still limited, rarely focusing on transitional activities, and without addressing falls. Furthermore, the small amount of data used and the lack of information regarding validation processes are other drawbacks found in the literature. To overcome these drawbacks, a total of nine public and private datasets were merged in order to gather a large amount of data to improve the robustness of several ADL recognition algorithms. Furthermore, an AI-based framework was developed in this manuscript to perform a comparative analysis of several ADL Machine Learning (ML)-based classifiers. Feature selection algorithms were used to extract only the relevant features from the dataset's lower trunk inertial data. For the recognition of 20 different ADL and falls, results have shown that the best performance was obtained with the K-NN classifier with the first 85 features ranked by Relief-F (98.22% accuracy). However, Ensemble Learning classifier with the first 65 features ranked by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) presented 96.53% overall accuracy while maintaining a lower classification time per window (0.039 ms), showing a higher potential for its usage in real-time scenarios in the future. Deep Learning algorithms were also tested. Despite its outcomes not being as good as in the prior procedure, their potential was also demonstrated (overall accuracy of 92.55% for Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Neural Network), indicating that they could be a valid option in the future.

Language: en

Keywords

falls; deep learning; activity recognition; dataset fusion; feature selection; Machine Learning