Citation

Lorenzen SR, Riedel H, Rupp MM, Schmeiser L, Berthold H, Firus A, Schneider J. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22(22): e8963.

Copyright

(Copyright © 2022, MDPI: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute)

DOI

10.3390/s22228963

PMID

36433559

Abstract

In the practical application of the Bridge Weigh-In-Motion (BWIM) methods, the position of the wheels or axles during the passage of a vehicle is a prerequisite in most cases. To avoid the use of conventional axle detectors and bridge type-specific methods, we propose a novel method for axle detection using accelerometers placed arbitrarily on a bridge. In order to develop a model that is as simple and comprehensible as possible, the axle detection task is implemented as a binary classification problem instead of a regression problem. The model is implemented as a Fully Convolutional Network to process signals in the form of Continuous Wavelet Transforms. This allows passages of any length to be processed in a single step with maximum efficiency while utilising multiple scales in a single evaluation. This allows our method to use acceleration signals from any location on the bridge structure and act as Virtual Axle Detectors (VADs) without being limited to specific structural types of bridges. To test the proposed method, we analysed 3787 train passages recorded on a steel trough railway bridge of a long-distance traffic line.

RESULTS of the measurement data show that our model detects 95% of the axles, which means that 128,599 out of 134,800 previously unseen axles were correctly detected. In total, 90% of the axles were detected with a maximum spatial error of 20 cm, at a maximum velocity of vmax=56.3m/s. The analysis shows that our developed model can use accelerometers as VADs even under real operating conditions.

Language: en

Keywords

machine learning; bridge weigh-in-motion; continuous wavelet transformation; field validation; free-of-axle-detector; fully convolutional networks; moving load localisation; nothing-on-road; structural health monitoring