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Abstract
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The Problem
The involvement of young people in gangs and gang crime is not only an issue in western nations, but also across low- and middle-income countries. Research demonstrates the existence of youth gangs in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, with much of the evidence coming from Latin American nations (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; Gatti, Haymoz & Schadee, 2011). Although official and academic estimates of gang membership differ, estimates put the number of gang members in Central America at up to 200,000 (UNODC, 2007), and research suggests that over 85,000 people are members of gangs in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras (Seelke, 2013). In South Africa, it is estimated that there are up to 100,000 members in Western Cape alone (Reckson & Becker, cited in Decker & Pyrooz, 2010). Gang activities - and particularly those of youth gangs - contribute significantly to the violent crime problem in low- and middle-income countries. The cost of violence in Latin America is estimated at approximately 14.2 per cent of GDP - almost three times the proportion of GDP reported in industrialised countries (Seelke, 2013). Gang violence makes up a significant proportion of this cost: the annual cost of violent crime in El Salvador is reported at US$ 1.7 billion, with gang violence accounting for 60 per cent (Seelke, 2013).
Gang violence undermines social cohesion in communities, creating fear amongst residents (see Lane & Meeker, 2003; Seelke, 2013; Washington Office of Latin America [WOLA], 2006) and results in people avoiding certain areas of neighbourhoods known to be gang areas. George Tita and his colleagues explain that these places develop an appearance of visible disorder as non-gang activity in the neighbourhood is abandoned (Tita, Cohen, & Engberg, 2005). Youth gangs are also increasingly associated with trafficking in drugs, arms and humans (Organization of American States [OAS], 2007).
Gang violence and crime can occur between gangs and non-gang individuals, as well as between or within gangs. Violence may be used to defend or expand gang turf, recruit new members, keep members from leaving, exclude or remove undesired members, exercise revenge or seek redress for actual or perceived wrongs, enhance perceptions of power and invincibility, gain respect or dominance over others, and enforce the gang rules (Pacheco, 2010). Although there are significant negative repercussions in the life course for members of youth gangs (Cruz, 2007; Davies & MacPherson, 2011; OAS, 2007; WOLA, 2006), for many young people who lack other opportunities, gangs offer a sense of belonging and purpose (Howell, 2012; Tobin, 2008).
Researchers often contest a uniform definition of a youth gang, as it varies by time and place (Howell, Egley, & O'Donnell, n.d.). Notwithstanding these debates, the literature typically describes a gang as: comprising between 15 to 100 members, generally aged 12 to 24; having members that share an identity linked to name, symbols, colours or physical or economic territory; having members and outsiders that view the group as a gang; having some permanence and degree of organisation; and involvement in an elevated level of criminal activity (Decker & Curry, 2003; see also Esbensen, Winfree, He, & Taylor, 2001; Howell et al., n.d.; Huff, 1993; Miller, 1992; Rodgers, 1999; Spergel, 1995; Theriot & Parker, 2008). There have been significant efforts amongst academics and policy makers to reach agreement on the definition of a youth gang. The "Eurogang Working Group" (see The Eurogang Project, 2012) consensus definition is as follows: "A street gang (or troublesome youth group corresponding to a street gang elsewhere) is any durable, street-oriented youth group whose involvement in illegal activity is part of its group identity" (Weerman et. al., 2009, p.20). A youth gang is differentiated from an adult gang if the majority of the gang members are aged between 12 and 25 (Weerman et. al., 2009). ...
Language: en |