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Abstract
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VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this study by Sanson et al. was to assess gender differences in aggression in children from infancy to 8 years of age. A social learning approach was supported.
METHODOLOGY:
A quasi-experimental design was employed for this study. The authors conducted a primary analysis of longitudinal data gathered at regular intervals from 300 families drawn randomly from a community sample of 2,443 families involved in the Australian Temperament Project (ATP; 1983). Survey and interview data that assessed patterns of child behavior were used to identify the development of gender differences in aggression in children. Early testing for biological differences identified those boys and girls who were biologically disadvantaged. It was hypothesized that if biological factors were responsible for sex differences in aggression in children that these would be present earlier in life. The authors also hypothesized that if anti-social, aggressive behavior increased over a period of time then it was more likely that socializing factors were responsible. Survey collection of data by ATP proceeded when the children were 4-8 months of age and continued yearly until they reached 8 years of age. When the children of the original 2,443 sample were between 3-4 years a subsample of 300 families, fully representative of the total sample, was selected and detailed assessments of this subsample were made. These families were tested at home when the children were aged 3-4 years, 5-6 years and 7-8 years of age. Parents completed the appropriate questionnaires and teachers' responses were obtained by mail. In addition, birth history and infant health reports were gathered from nurses and hospital records. Various questionnaires and rating instruments were used to measure temperament, developmental and behavioral adjustment, and health. Specific tests were administered according to the child's stage of development. Rating scales for temperament included: the Short Temperament Scale for Infants (STSI; Sanson, Prior, Oberklaid, Garino & Sewell, 1987) which measured factors of Approach, Rhythmicity, Cooperation-Manageability, Activity-Reactivity and Irritability; the Toddler Temperament Scale (TTS; Fullard, McDevitt & Carey, 1984) which measured factors of Approach, Rhythmicity, Cooperation-Manageability, Activity, Irritability, Persistence, Distractibility and Reactivity; the Childhood Temperament Questionnaire (CTQ; Thomas & Chess, 1977) which measured Inflexibility, Persistence, Sociability and Rhythmicity; and the Teacher Temperament Questionnaire (TTQ; Keogh, Pullis & Cadwell, 1982) which measured Task Orientation, Flexibility and Reactivity. Behavioral adjustment scales included: a score of common behavior problems in infancy and toddlerhood; the Behavior Checklist (Richman & Graham, 1971) which measured 20 problem behaviors (no details were given); the Pre-school Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ; Behar & Stringfield, 1974) which obtained Hostile-Aggressive, Hyperactive and Anxious-Fearful scores; the Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales (VABS; Sparrow, Balla & Cicchetti, 1984) which provided scores on Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization and Motor Skills; the Parental Report scales (modified version of Cohen, Dibble & Grawe, 1977) which measured childrearing practices such as, Child Centredness, Control through Guilt and Anxiety, Use of Punishment, Encouragement of Child Autonomy, Degree of Consistency and Use of Reasoning; the Aggression Questionnaire (Arnold, 1988) which obtained a score of aggressive and competitive behavior as reported by mothers. Health ratings were obtained from nurses, and parents reported child health using an adaptation of the Rand Corporation survey instrument (Eisen, Donald, Ware & Brook, 1980) (no details were given). Developmental adjustment scales included measures of language development obtained from mothers' ratings of slow to talk, stuttering or stammering, articulation problems, and 6+ words by 18 months, and the Binet Intelligence Scale (4th Edition, Thorndike, Hagan & Sattler, 1986). T-tests and chi squared tests were used to analyze the data.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
Results of the study indicated that, in infancy, there were few significant biological sex differences other than weight. Temperament and behavioral scores revealed that infant boys were more difficult than infant girls. However, overall there are few differences between boys and girls during infancy and at the toddler stage of development. At each data collection interval the results revealed that boys and girls became progressively differentiated on measures of aggressiveness; boys increased in hyperactivity and aggressiveness. At 3-4 years of age, there was evidence that male social skill development was slower and problems with language were also significantly greater amongst boys (slow to talk, p<.001; 6+ words by 18 months, p<.035; stutters or stammers, p<.000; and understandable speech, p<.002). Overall, mothers gave more negative ratings for boys than for girls at ages 7-8 (p<.000). Health differences were also reported. Boys suffered more asthma/bronchitis (p<.026) and hayfever (p<.014) while girls experienced more kidney and bladder problems (5-6 yrs, p<.028; 7-8 yrs, p<.017). According to results from the Parental Report, boys were treated more punitively than girls by both mothers and fathers. Teacher and tester reports revealed that boys were higher on externalizing behaviour problem variables (e.g., hostile-aggressive and hyperactive behaviors). School readiness, academic and social competence was poor amongst boys. No probability results were provided. The authors concluded that their results support a social learning theory of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior in childhood. They stated that the development of maladaptive behavior was most likely to be more environmentally based than biological. They based their conclusions on the lack of gender differentiation on measures of aggressiveness during infancy and toddlerhood and the observed increment in aggressive behavior over time. They suggested that the greater frequency of maladaptive behavior evident among boys may be the result of slower rates of maturity and language development. Environmental influences contributing towards aggression in boys included the experience of violence content in the media, "anti-social" toys, and expectations to be aggressive in sports. Also, the authors contended that boys are socialized to be assertive and girls are socialized to be passive. Punitive and less than optimal parenting behavior towards boys was said to also contribute towards their aggressive behavior.
AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS:
The authors stressed that it is necessary to identify social learning experiences which may lead to maladaptive behavior in boys in order to help reduce such behavior from occurring. Parents needed to have the skills to identify and understand varying temperaments and address difficult temperaments in boys in non-punitive ways; to be able to recognize and understand the slower language and social development of boys so that expectations may be lowered; and to encourage language skills development through communicating differently and more frequently with them. Furthermore, the reinforcement of male "macho" stereotypes needed to be interrupted. It was suggested that this could be achieved by changing current male parenting behaviors to include more sensitivity and nurturance, replacing punishment at school with more positive reinforcement such as group cooperation and personal responsibility, and at the societal level, reducing aggressive behavior currently seen in sports and on television, etc. The authors concluded that psychologists are in a leading position to help make change.
(CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
Gender Differences
Child Aggression
Child Development
Infant Development
Youth Development
Child Female
Child Male
Male Aggression
Female Aggression
Early Childhood
Middle Childhood
Aggression Causes
Environmental Factors
Social Learning Theory
Social Development
Australia
Countries Other Than USA
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